The size matters in cosmological models.

“Two images from the Quijote simulations used in this study. The panels show the same region of the Universe, but in different cosmological models. The top image corresponds. To the standard ΛCDM, adiabatic cold dark matter model, while the bottom image shows a universe with massive neutrinos and modified gravity. “(ScitechDaily, AI Learned the Rules of the Universe and That Became a Problem)

The differences are subtle, but they reveal how changes in the underlying physics can affect the formation and distribution of cosmic structures. Credit: Francisco Villaescusa-Navarro (ScitechDaily, AI Learned the Rules of the Universe and That Became a Problem)

The term ACDM can also mean : the associated critical data model. That is the critical tool, when the sensor. It transmits information to the AI. 

AI can help cosmologists, but it can also become a problem. 

The method researchers call transferable learning can help them develop new models in cosmology and many other things. The term transferable learning. Means when the system learns something. It can apply. That learned thing. To other similar cases. So, when AI sees similar curves in some other cases. It can use things that it has already learned. To that other problem. This means that. The researchers must not always. Begin the training process. From the beginning. 

The AI can search for similarities for the new thing in its memory. And if there is a match. That thing means that the AI. It can use that model for reaction. This should make AI more effective. The problem is this. The AI selects its sources using statistics. And that can make it hard to bring new data for the AI. Old research. They are very often-used sources. If somewhere is the new data. Before, nobody used the new data as a source. Old data dominates search engines. The AI is an excellent tool. When it must collect and analyse data from the galaxy movements. 

But in cases like supermassive neutrons, the AI is in trouble. The AI is the best in business. When it must analyze precise information. Things like galaxy clusters and their movements are precise information. But in cases like supermassive neutrinos. The AI is not very good. At things where it must create models for new physics. When AI must observe phenomena. It can interpret them as the same. Even if they are different. Or in the cases. 

There are some observations. Objects’ temperatures change. The AI might not know that the object’s temperature can change virtually. Because if something travels between the telescope and the object. That means. that the brightness or temperature. That reaches the observer changes. The AI might not notice things like clouds. In the Earth's atmosphere. Or other surprises when it observes some targets like Cepheid variables. If the system doesn’t know about that thing. It can recognize the Cepheid variable as a new star. If it doesn’t know that the star is a Cepheid. 

When AI tries to analyze a certain point. That thing is very hard to do. But when AI must analyze. A very large entirety. The AI becomes more effective. The AI sees things. Like movements of galaxy clusters. And it can make. An analysis of the changes in those movements. We can use fuzzy logic to analyze how the star clusters move in the galaxy. But then we face a problem. If we try to predict. The movement of the galaxy. In its supercluster. That is hard. 

We must know the entire system to make. A complete analysis with high precision. 

The problem is in perspective. The thing that seems large on Earth. Seems very small in the scale of the Sun. And the sun seems very small in the scale of the galaxy. When the scale of the system turns bigger. The forces in the system are also stronger. In big systems. The phenomenon scale is larger. But they affect more slowly. From our perspective. The forces that travel between galaxies take millions of years to reach other galaxies. The distance between the Andromeda galaxy and the Milky Way. It is 2.6 million ly. So light travels 2,6 million years from that galaxy to the Milky Way. And that means that any force traveling between those galaxies needs 2,6 million years for that trip. 

When we try to create a model. Of how one small sand bite behaves in a river. We must know many things. Like changes in the forces that affect the sand bite. But if we want to predict how the sand bottom behaves in the river. We can make that calculation very easily. When we think about galaxies. Stars are like sand bites on the bottom. 

One star’s behavior is hard to predict. But the entirety is quite easy to  calculate. And then we can go to bigger systems. In galactic superclusters, the galaxy is like sandbite on the bottom of the river. The force that affects the entire galaxy. Must be much harder than the force that affects sandbite. But millions of galaxies. They send. A very much. Energy. Many sudden things can happen in the galactic superclusters. Those events might not. Seem.

Like a very sudden thing. But an eruption in the core of the galaxy can start in milliseconds. Shockwave travels across the galaxy at the speed of light. So, if the star is at a distance. Of two light-years from the eruption source. The shockwave of radiation. It travels to that star. So, if Sagittarius A erupts violently in the core of our galaxy, the Milky Way. The radiation travels to Earth 26.000 years. The distance between Earth and that supermassive black hole. It’s 26.000 ly. The material, or plasma shockwaves, travel far behind that radiation shockwave. And the distance between plasma and wave movement increases all the time. 

 But. If things like supermassive black holes are in the trajectory. That makes them collide. That thing is very hard to change. When we face things like galactic superclusters. Things that happen on that scale seem very slow. But forces that put galaxies. To turn their trajectories into travel. At the speed of light. The force. That affects things. Like, turn their trajectories. Must affect a certain time with a certain force. 

If we want to create an AI that analyzes galactic clusters star by star. We cannot make that thing. In the galactic scale, it suddenly happens. Violent eruptions. Those eruptions can break the entire model. In the scale of superclusters, events like supernovas don’t have enough force to affect the macrosystem. But a supernova could destroy things like dwarf galaxies. But if the supernova explosion happens in dense star clusters. That shockwave. Can. Launch other supernova explosions. 

https://scitechdaily.com/ai-learned-the-rules-of-the-universe-and-that-became-a-problem/

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lambda-CDM_model

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A*

About dark energy. And its existence.

"Astronomers say a new analysis has reinforced one of the most important discoveries in modern cosmology, finding that the universe is still expanding at an accelerating rate."(ScitechDaily, Astronomers Confirm Dark Energy After Shock Challenge Rocked Cosmology)

"The result counters a controversial claim made in late 2025 that suggested dark energy, the mysterious phenomenon thought to drive the universe’s accelerating expansion, might be weakening. If true, that claim would have called into question decades of research and a cornerstone of modern astronomy."(ScitechDaily, Astronomers Confirm Dark Energy After Shock Challenge Rocked Cosmology)

Astronomers confirmed dark energy. And that means the universe’s expansion continues to accelerate. So, dark energy will not turn weaker. It’s possible that because the gravitational effect between objects decreases. And the relation between gravity and dark energy changes. This means that the gravitational effect turns weaker. And the dark energy effect turns stronger. The fact is that. Also, visible energy interacts with structures in the universe. And at the beginning of the universe. Objects were closer. But things like plasma and energy were “denser”. 

So, that means that the energy effect in the young universe was stronger than in the modern universe. Dark energy is a wave motion. That originates in the unknown. There is suspicion that dark energy has its origin. In the particles, superstrings. The superstring forms a whisk-shaped structure. 

The expansion of the universe puts that structure to oscillate. Those superstrings´ oscillation. It forms a wave movement that they transmit around the universe. In that model, the dark energy is a wave movement. Its origin is in very small particles. The number of those particles is in this model. A very high. And that explains the effect of dark energy. It is visible only in relation to the large-scale structures. 

So, could those particles that form dark energy be photons? Photons are the ring- or a donut-shaped structure. And that means photons could focus energy. In the middle of it. In that case, the photon could focus energy. Like the Higgs field in the middle of it. That point. It can turn into a quantum-sized quasar. This means that the photon. It can theoretically form. 

The quantum-size Kugelblitz black hole. In the middle of it. There is a possibility that a photon traps a neutrino in the middle of it. And electromagnetic radiation affects that photon. Or the neutrino spins very fast. That thing can turn a neutrino into a quantum-sized black hole. And that could be a source. For dark energy. In some other models, A wave string travels. Through a photon. That string. It can act as the thermal pump that transports energy out from the photon. If that happens fast enough. The photon turns invisible. And it collects energy for that thermal pump. 

This means that dark energy must have an internal source in our universe. But before we see a particle that transmits dark energy. We cannot be sure what that strange force is. That rips the universe in pieces. This means that dark energy is formed when the universe is born in the Big Bang. The problem is this. If. The level of dark energy is always the same. 

And the universe expands. This means that. The dark energy. It does not have a connection. With the Big Bang. The energy level. The amount of dark energy should decrease when the universe expands. If that energy was released from the Big Bang or some ancient particles, send it. Before they turned into some existing elementary particles. If the source of the dark energy is lost. That energy should turn weaker. And that causes an interesting idea. 

The image of a photon. 

What if the source of dark energy is outside the universe? Things like antimatter-matter annihilation outside the universe. It can be the source of dark energy. 

This means that. It’s possible that there are some kind of radiation sources. People tried to explain dark energy. As evidence of a multiverse. In this theory, dark energy has a source. In other universes. In some other model. The dark energy forms when a hypothetical tachyon particle enters our universe. The entropy and scattering effects outside the universe are very low. 

So, these particles can travel faster. Than. They travel in the universe. This means that a tachyon is a particle that travels faster than it should. So when some particle comes from outside the universe. In the universe. That particle can travel faster. Than. It can travel in the universe. This causes an effect. The particle must slow its speed. The particle must release its energy. For slowing. This means that dark energy. It can be some kind of Cherenkov radiation. 

Cherenkov radiation forms when. A neutron comes out of a nuclear reactor. In a short moment, that particle travels faster than light travels in water. The neutron must slow its speed. And it sends a blue light shockwave. The same thing makes the sky blue. When a neutrino or electron hits the atmosphere. It travels faster than light does in the atmosphere. And this means. Those particles release their kinetic energy as the blue light flash. 

But if dark energy is some kind of Cherenkov radiation. That doesn’t mean that the source of those particles is in the other universes. The dark energy is visible only between galaxy superclusters. All galaxies have halos around them. That means that. The galaxies might be surrounded by a similar plasma halo that forms a heliopause around the Sun. The plasma bubble or standing impact wave. Forms when solar wind impacts stellar wind. The stellar wind. It is the particle flow from other stars. 

In the same way, galaxies, galaxy clusters, and superclusters are probably surrounded by impact waves that form. When particle flow from other structures impacts the particle flow. That comes from galaxies in our clusters and superclusters. If those impact waves exist. They would be denser points in the universe. This means that. Scattering effect. It is stronger in that structure. This means that. The speed of light in that plasma wave is a little bit lower. 

The speed of light in and outside those plasma bubbles. So when a particle impacts that plasma bubble. It releases its energy into that plasma wave. This means the energy that the slowing particle sends. Continues as a wave in that plasma halo. This causes an effect. The plasma ball sends energy. Into the middle of it. This means. That this oscillating plasma interacts like a vacuum bomb. The energy that the plasma ball sends inside it. Reflects back. And that can mean that the plasma balls are the source of that mysterious energy. 

Or maybe particles that travel through wormholes. Are. The source of dark energy. The wormhole. It is a hypothetical energy tunnel. Through space and time. The energy level of those particles is higher than it should be. And they should release their energy. In the form of some kind of radiation.If there is no entropy in front of the particle that travels in a wormhole. Nothing limits its speed.  In the same way as when high-energy particles come out from galaxy superclusters, they send energy to space that is at a lower energy level than they are. 

Sometimes it is suggested that the dark matter particles form dark energy. When they evaporate. This would be an interesting idea. But nobody has seen dark matter. 

https://www.eurekalert.org/news-releases/1131610

https://www.msn.com/en-us/science/astronomy/astronomers-debunk-controversial-study-confirm-universe-still-expanding-at-accelerating-rate/ar-AA25tzft

https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2026/06/260612032030.htm

https://scitechdaily.com/astronomers-confirm-dark-energy-after-shock-challenge-rocked-cosmology/

https://scitechdaily.com/quantum-leap-scientists-reveal-the-shape-of-a-single-photon-for-the-first-time/

https://spaceeyenews.com/dark-energy-acceleration-confirmed/

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dark_energy

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dark_matter

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wormhole

String theory and quantum gravity are new challenges for physics.

“Artwork illustrating how string theory emerges from a few simple mathematical assumptions about particle collisions. Credit: AI-generated art by Clifford Cheung.” (ScitechDaily, Physicists Found String Theory Without Even Looking for It)

How to combine quantum gravity with large-scale gravity? 

String theory explains matter as the oscillating strings. Those strings can rotate, and that explains phenomena like quantum gravity. This means that. At least some part. Quantum gravity could form when photons. The ring-shaped strings. Changing their form. When a superstring moves. There forms the small quanutum low-energy vacuum behind it. The other part of the quantum field tries to fill that point. And then two quantum waves impact. 

That causes reflection in that field. That reflection is very weak. But there are lots of superstrings in the universe. And that is one explanation for dark matter. And that could explain dark energy. As well. The model is that dark energy could form when cosmic micro- or quantum-sized vacuums collapse. When that collapse happens. The effect is the same as in vacuum bombs. Those falling vacuums collect quantum fields or energy. 

In the middle of them. Those vacuums can also act like particles. The thing that causes the destruction or collapse in those microvacuums is the expansion of the universe. The expansion opens the superstring structure that forms. Inside them. That causes a situation where the quantum field travels in that vacuum. That causes an energy impulse to this structure. 

In some other models, the dark energy forms when gravitation puts quantum fields into motion. That causes the effect. It puts. Particles and quantum fields around them to glow. 

That model explains why we cannot see dark matter particles. So, dark matter is in this model. A very large-scale quantum gravitation effect. That forms between particles. In this text, the “particle” means the gravitational center. 

Quantum gravity forms when a spinning string pulls a quantum field or smaller strings around it. The problem is this: reseachers have problems fitting quantum gravity with large-scale or normal gravity. It’s possible that there are two versions of gravity. The short- and long-distance gravitation. Quantum gravity means. Gravitational effect between single particles. 

Wikipedia describes that thing like this: 

“Quantum gravity (QG) is a field of theoretical physics that seeks unification of the theory of gravity with the principles of quantum mechanics. It deals with environments in which neither gravitational nor quantum effects can be ignored, such as in the vicinity of black holes or similar compact astrophysical objects, as well as in the early stages of the universe, moments after the Big Bang.” (Wikipedia, Quantum gravity)

Quantum gravity is one part of cGh physics. 

“cGh physics refers to the historical attempts in physics to unify relativity, gravitation, and quantum mechanics, in particular following the ideas of Matvei Petrovich Bronstein and George Gamow. The letters are the standard symbols for the speed of light (c), the gravitational constant (G), and the Planck constant (h).” (Wikipedia, cGh physics)

That is the key problem with the Grand Unified Theory, GUT. And the Theory of Everything, TOE. There are models that suggest gravity, or quantum gravity, is not a single phenomenon. The idea is that.

 

“Diagram showing where quantum gravity sits in the near-cube hierarchy of physics theories. Note that electromagnetism and quantum field theory in curved spacetime are added in as an extra and distinct item.” (Wikipedia, cGh physics)

Maybe. Some part of gravity. Or. Gravitation. Forms. When a spinning particle forms a quantum spike. The spin of particles is often 1/2. That means the particle wobbles back and forth. But then. We must realize that a particle is surrounded by its quantum field. That field. 

Or, the halo of the particle has spin 1. So the halo around the particle travels around it. And if the shape of the particle is like a whisk. That causes a situation. There is a hole between the particle and the field. That hole pulls  photons away from the particle. The quantum spike forms from that quantum field. And we can call that thing the quantum tornado. 

That quantum spike that is similar to the whirl that forms at some planets' poles pushes against other matter. This spike pulls particles and strings away from its route. If that spike hits the lower energy matter, energy starts to flow from the particle to the lower energy matter. That forms energy asymmetry. 

That energy asymmetry causes a situation in which the particle loses energy from its other side. Then the energy from its other side tries to fill this hole. That forms an energy flow to the lower energy object. And that energy flow drives the particle. To the lower energy object. This means that the field. Or quantum wind pushes particles all the time. Together. This means that this model forms interaction only in short distances. But those strings can also pull energy out from the other quantum fields. 

This kind of large-scale quantum effect can be measured only around objects like black holes. The idea is that. When a quantum spike travels through matter, it acts like a thermal pump. That thermal pump cools the particle. And that causes a situation. Outside, quantum fields are traveling to that particle. 

https://scitechdaily.com/physicists-found-string-theory-without-even-looking-for-it/

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CGh_physics

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dark_energy

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dark_matter

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grand_Unified_Theory

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_gravity

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spin_(physics)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standard_Model

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/String_theory

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theory_of_everything

What if all we thought about dark matter is wrong?

   What if all we thought about dark matter is wrong? 

Above: Cosmic gamma-ray background.

So, what makes gravitational waves and gravitational fields move? That is the key question in dark matter research. There are suggestions that the gravitational effect that we know as “dark matter” can be quantum-sized black holes, or some kind of particles like axions. The problem is that nobody has seen any axion yet. And if somebody says that the still hypothetical free graviton particles are the thing that forms dark matter, the next question is: what are gravitons? Are they quantum-size black holes?

Gravitons are theoretical gravitation transporter particles. Those particles are things that cause gravitational waves moving. But another thing is that dark matter can be anything that we can imagine. The only known fact is this: there is some kind of gravitational effect whose origin is unknown. 

All four fundamental interactions are some kind of radiation. And each of those interactions has its own individual wavelength. Each fundamental interaction, gravity, strong nuclear force, weak nuclear force, and electromagnetism, has its own individual radiation type. 

Then we can think about the shape of materia. The particle is like a whisk. The strings that form the particle shell have a certain height. When a particle spins, it binds energy into it as kinetic energy. Sometimes a particle’s energy level turns higher than its environment. And in that moment particle sends waves. Those waves’ wavelength is the same as the particle’s diameter. But the height of those strings also causes limits in that interaction. Strings on the particle’s shell touch the field. Those strings are like flaps on paddlewheels. Their height determines the wave types that the particle can bind to. If those strings are high, that particle can bind a longer wavelength. 

There is one rule for interaction. Radiation or water must have access between those flaps. If the paddlewheel or propeller spins too fast, that causes an effect called supercavitation. The water has no time to fall between those flaps or between the propeller’s blades, which causes the paddle wheel or propeller to spin in a bubble. And that causes an interesting hypothesis. 

Could there be a particle that spins so fast that it causes supercavitation in the quantum fields? Can some particle spin so fast that it can make a cavitation bubble in the gravitational field? If that particle exists, that means gravitation will not affect that particle. Gravitation affects that particle’s quantum bubble. But it doesn’t affect the particle itself like other particles. If particle groups like hadrons spin very fast, their quarks can turn into a straight row. 

That spin can cause a situation where quantum fields or radiation travel to the axle of that particle row. And that can make the particle a hard target for observers. Fast spin can also throw radiation past the particle. This makes it invisible. But can that thing be possible with elementary particles? And can some particle throw gravitational radiation, or gravitational waves, past it? That causes an effect where gravitational waves slide over particles without causing interaction. But can this be true? Heaven knows. 

And in that case. Longer wavelengths. Like electromagnetism covers other, shorter wavelenght below them. That means electromagnetic force covers weak and strong nuclear forces. And gravity below it. If something pulls the G-field into something, that field pulls other fields to that particle. 

There is a possibility to press all parts of an atom into one entirety called a singularity. The reason why we cannot see the singularity is that its so smooth. Those superstrings on its surface are so low that they can bind only short-wave radiation. That means the particle will be surrounded by the standing gravity field. The singularity harnesses the G-field that transports other fields to the singularity.  How long will that singularity remain? As long as the outside fields can press that thing into one entirety. 

But there is a possibility that if the particle spins very fast. That causes a situation where longer wavelengths have no time to fall between those strings. That means the extremely fast-spinning particle drives fields past it like a stealth aircraft. The idea is that the G-field is the shortest wave radiation, and the fastest spinning objects can cause a situation where the only thing that can interact with that particle is the G-field. The G-field is the only thing that has time to fall between those strings. 

This causes another very interesting question. Can there be a so fast-spinning particle that even the gravity field, or G-field, has no time to fall between those strings? If that kind of particle exists. That would be the revolution for physics. 

https://www.space.com/astronomy/dark-universe/what-if-weve-been-thinking-about-dark-matter-all-wrong-scientist-wonders